Conjunctions – NDA English Notes

1. Introduction

Conjunctions are the grammatical stitches that hold English sentences together. They join words, phrases, and clauses, expressing relationships of cause, time, condition, contrast, purpose, and addition. A sentence without the right conjunction is a sentence with broken logic.

Unlike prepositions (which are largely collocational and require item-by-item memorisation), conjunctions are a relatively small, closed class governed by learnable rules about pairing, polarity, and redundancy. This makes the Conjunctions chapter more systematically teachable than any other grammar chapter in Section A.

Fifteen confirmed NDA questions across four question formats spanning 2009 to 2026 test this chapter. The central principle is:

★  IMPORTANT Each conjunction already encodes a specific logical relationship. Using a second word that encodes the same relationship is always redundant, and always wrong in formal English.

The dominant examination pattern is the redundant conjunction: “Though he is poor, but he is honest”: “though” already expresses contrast, so “but” is redundant. “Unless the government does not revise”: “unless” already means “if not”, so “not” doubles the negative. Five confirmed NDA questions confirm this as the chapter’s most tested concept. NDA 2026-I then introduced a parallel test: selecting the correct conjunction from alternatives to match a given logical relationship: a complementary skill that requires the same foundational knowledge of conjunction logic.

2. What Is a Conjunction? Types and Functions

A conjunction is a word that joins two or more words, phrases, or clauses. Every conjunction expresses a specific logical relationship between the elements it joins. Choosing the wrong conjunction (or using two conjunctions for the same relationship) produces a logical or grammatical error.

Coordinating Conjunctions: Joining Equal Elements

Coordinating conjunctions join grammatically equal elements: two nouns, two adjectives, two main clauses. The main coordinating conjunctions are: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so, often remembered by the mnemonic FANBOYS.

“She is poor, but she is honest.”  → “but” joins two main clauses (contrast)

“He neither studied nor practised.”  → “nor” joins two verb phrases (negative addition)

“She worked hard, so she succeeded.”  → “so” joins two main clauses (result)

Subordinating Conjunctions: Joining Unequal Elements

Subordinating conjunctions join a dependent (subordinate) clause to a main clause. They introduce the dependent clause and signal its logical relationship to the main clause. The subordinate clause cannot stand alone as a complete sentence.

“Although he is poor, he is honest.”  → “although” introduces a concessive clause

“Unless you work hard, you will fail.”  → “unless” introduces a negative conditional clause

“He left because he was tired.”  → “because” introduces a causal clause

“Wait until the light turns green.”  → “until” introduces a temporal clause

Correlative Conjunctions: Fixed Two-Part Pairs

Correlative conjunctions work in pairs: a first element and a fixed second element. The two elements must be used together, and the second element cannot be substituted for another word. This is what makes correlative pair errors so common: students know the first element but use the wrong second element.

“Both he and his friend worked together.”  → “both…and” (not “as well as”)

“No sooner did he leave than it rained.”  → “no sooner…than” (not “when”)

“She is not so much tired as hungry.”  → “not so much…as” (not “but”)

“Either you come now or you miss the chance.”  → “either…or” (not “nor”)

3. The Logical Taxonomy of Conjunctions

Understanding what logical relationship each conjunction expresses is the foundation of both error detection and conjunction selection. Every confirmed NDA conjunction error involves a mismatch between the intended logical relationship and the conjunction used. The 2026-I Sentence Completion questions directly test this taxonomy: the student must identify the relationship the sentence expresses and select the conjunction that matches it.

Logical Relationship	Conjunctions	Example	NDA Tested
Causal (reason)	because, since, as, for	“I did not buy it because I did not like it.”	NDA 2026-I SC
Temporal (time: event)	when, while, after, before, once, as	“You must stay inside when it starts raining.”	NDA 2026-I SC
Temporal (endpoint)	until, till	“Wait until / till you see the green light.”	NDA 2026-I SC
Temporal (immediacy)	as soon as, the moment, once	“I felt hungry as soon as I heard the bell.”	NDA 2017-I FITB
Conditional (positive)	if, provided (that), assuming (that)	“If you study well, you will pass.”	NDA 2026-I context
Conditional (negative)	unless (= if not)	“I will not pay unless he sends me the bill.”	NDA 2026-I SC
Concessive (contrast)	although, though, even though, even if	“Although he is poor, he is honest.”	NDA 2021-I SE
Adversative (opposition)	but, yet, whereas, while	“He is poor, but he is honest.”	NDA 2021-I context
Purpose (positive)	so that, in order that	“Study so that you may succeed.”	Standard syllabus
Purpose (negative)	lest	“Work hard lest you fail.”	NDA 2019-II
Result	so, so that (result sense)	“He was tired, so he slept.”	Standard syllabus
Additive correlative	both…and, not only…but also	“Both he and his friend worked together.”	NDA 2009-I SE

The self-test for any conjunction question: identify the logical relationship the sentence is trying to express, then find the conjunction that expresses exactly that relationship, and only that relationship. A causal conjunction cannot replace a concessive one; a temporal conjunction cannot replace a conditional one. The relationship determines the conjunction.

4. Redundant Conjunctions: The Chapter’s Dominant Pattern

Five confirmed NDA questions (more than any other concept in this chapter) test the same underlying error: using two conjunctions or conjunction-like words where only one is grammatically correct. In each case, the first element already expresses the complete logical relationship; the second element repeats or contradicts it.

The unifying principle applies to every instance:  If the second element adds no logical meaning that the first does not already contain, the second element is redundant and must be dropped.

“Though…But”: Double Contrast Markers

“Though” (or “although”) is a subordinating conjunction of concession: it expresses contrast between the subordinate clause and the main clause. When “though” heads the subordinate clause, the main clause does not also take “but.” Both “though” and “but” encode the same contrast relationship. One must be dropped.

“Though” handles contrast in the subordinate clause  → drop “but” from the main clause.

“But” handles contrast in the main clause  → drop “though” from the beginning.

Never:  “Though…but”: two contrast markers for one contrast.

NDA 2021-I: Spotting Errors:

“Though he is poor,/(a) but he is/(b) honest./(c) No error/(d)”

Error: Part (b): “but he is”

Correct: “Though he is poor, he is honest.”  [NDA 2021-I]

OR: “He is poor, but he is honest.”: coordinating structure, equally correct.

This is a confirmed Indianism. In many Indian language structures, the equivalent of “although…but” is grammatically natural and common. In formal written English, it is non-standard: only one contrast marker is permitted per construction.

“Unless…Not”: Negative Redundancy

“Unless” is already a negative conditional conjunction: it means “if not.” When “unless” heads the clause, the clause is already semantically negative. Adding “not” to that clause creates a double negative that inverts the intended meaning: “Unless the government does not revise” = “if the government does revise”: the opposite of what is intended.

Correct: “Unless you work hard, you will fail.”

Incorrect: “Unless you do not work hard, you will fail.”  means “if you do work hard”

NDA 2009-II: Spotting Errors:

“Unless the government does not revise its policy of liberalization/(a) the growth of the indigenous technology/(b) will be adversely affected./(c) No error/(d)”

Error: Part (a): “does not revise”

Correct: “Unless the government revises its policy…”  [NDA 2009-II]

The parallel error appears with “until”: “Until you don’t finish” is another Indianism: “until” expresses a temporal endpoint, and “not” is sometimes added for emphasis in Indian English. The correct form is “Until you finish the work”: “not” is not needed because the incompleteness is already expressed by “until.”

NDA 2015-II: Sentence Improvement:

“Until you don’t finish the work, you won’t be given leave.”

Underlined: “Until you don’t finish”  |  Options: (a) Until you must finish  (b) Until finishing  (c) Until you finish  (d) No improvement

Answer: (c) Until you finish  [NDA 2015-II]

“Until” already expresses the idea of “not yet”: “don’t” is redundant.

“Supposing If”: Double Conditional Markers

“Supposing” in this use functions as a conditional: “supposing you get a seat” means “if you get a seat.” Adding “if” duplicates the conditional. Both words are performing the same grammatical function; only one is needed.

NDA 2009-II: Spotting Errors:

“Supposing if you get/(a) a seat in the plane/(b) you will not take more than two hours to reach Mumbai./(c) No error/(d)”

Error: Part (a): “Supposing if”

Correct: “Supposing you get a seat…” OR “If you get a seat…”  [NDA 2009-II]

NDA 2009-II tested two redundant conjunction errors in the same paper.

“Lest…Not”: Purpose Clause Negative Redundancy

“Lest” is a formal subordinating conjunction expressing negative purpose: it means “in order that not” or “for fear that.” The negative meaning is built into “lest” itself. Adding “not” creates a double negative that reverses the intended meaning: “Work hard lest you do not fail” means “work hard so that you will fail.”

NDA 2019-II: Spotting Errors:

“Work hard/(a) lest you do not/(b) fail./(c) No error/(d)”

Error: Part (b): “do not”

Correct: “Work hard lest you fail.”  [NDA 2019-II]

Optionally: “Work hard lest you should fail.”: the subjunctive “should” is formal but correct.

The “not” after “lest” inverts the meaning: always drop it.

“In Spite Of” Before a Full Clause

“In spite of” is a complex preposition: it must be followed by a noun phrase or a gerund phrase, not by a full clause (a clause with its own subject and finite verb). When the structure that follows has a subject and verb, the correct word is “even though”: a subordinating conjunction that can head a full clause.

NDA 2016-II: Sentence Improvement:

“My old teacher gave many poor students money in spite of he was poor.”

Underlined: “in spite of”  |  Options: (a) even though  (b) as if  (c) however  (d) No improvement

Answer: (a) even though  [NDA 2016-II]

“In spite of he was poor”: “he was poor” is a full clause, not a noun phrase. A preposition cannot precede a full clause with subject + finite verb. “Even though he was poor”: correct: subordinating conjunction before full clause.

Correct:  “In spite of his poverty”  noun phrase after preposition

Correct: “In spite of being poor”  gerund phrase after preposition

Incorrect:  “In spite of he was poor”  full clause cannot follow a preposition

“Also” Used as a Subordinating Conjunction

“Also” is an adverb: it adds information but cannot join two clauses. It does not express a logical relationship between clauses the way a conjunction does. When a sentence requires a causal, adversative, or additive conjunction to join two clauses, “also” is the wrong choice.

NDA 2016-II: Sentence Improvement:

“He asked for a bank loan also he didn’t have sufficient resources.”

Underlined: “also”  |  Options: (a) because  (b) even if  (c) requiring  (d) No improvement

Answer: (a) because  [NDA 2016-II]

“Also” cannot join two independent clauses. It is an adverb, not a conjunction. The sentence expresses reason: “because he didn’t have sufficient resources.”

“Not Only…But Also As Well”: Redundant Additive Elements

NDA 2010-II: Spotting Errors:

“The speaker was/(a) not only slow/(b) but also inaudible as well./(c) No error/(d)”

Error: Part (c): “as well” is redundant after “not only…but also”

Correct: “not only slow but also inaudible”  [NDA 2010-II]

“Not only…but also” is already additive and emphatic. Adding “as well” at the end repeats the additive meaning a third time: redundant.

The Complete Redundant Conjunction Reference

Incorrect Construction	Error Type	Correct Form	NDA Paper
“Though he is poor, BUT he is honest.”	Double contrast markers	“Though he is poor, he is honest.”	NDA 2021-I
“Unless the government does NOT revise…”	Negative redundancy (unless = if not)	“Unless the government revises…”	NDA 2009-II
“Until you DON’T finish the work…”	Negative redundancy (until = not yet)	“Until you finish the work…”	NDA 2015-II
“SUPPOSING IF you get a seat…”	Double conditional markers	“Supposing you get…” / “If you get…”	NDA 2009-II
“Work hard lest you do NOT fail.”	Negative redundancy (lest = so…not)	“Work hard lest you fail.”	NDA 2019-II
“In spite of HE WAS POOR”	Preposition before full clause	“Even though he was poor”	NDA 2016-II
“He asked for a loan ALSO he didn’t…”	“Also” used as conjunction	“…because he didn’t have funds.”	NDA 2016-II
“not only…but also inaudible AS WELL”	Triple additive markers	“not only…but also inaudible”	NDA 2010-II

5. Correlative Conjunction Pairs: Fixed Pairings

Correlative conjunctions are two-part structures. The first element locks in the second: once “both” is used, only “and” can follow; once “no sooner” is used, only “than” can follow. Three pairs have been directly confirmed in NDA questions; the remaining pairs must be learned as equally important syllabus content.

★  IMPORTANT The first element of a correlative pair determines the second. There is no flexibility in these pairings. Learn each pair as a single indivisible unit.

First Element	Required Second Element	Common Error	Example	NDA Status
Both	AND	“as well as” (non-standard)	“Both he AND his friend worked together.”	NDA 2009-I
Either	OR	“nor” (wrong pair)	“Either come now OR miss the chance.”	Standard syllabus
Neither	NOR	“or” (wrong pair)	“Neither he NOR his friend came.”	Standard syllabus
not only	but also	“but” alone (incomplete)	“Not only brave BUT ALSO intelligent.”	NDA 2010-II context
no sooner	THAN	“when” (confirmed error)	“No sooner had he left THAN it rained.”	NDA 2015-I
Hardly	WHEN	“than” (mirrors no sooner)	“Hardly had he arrived WHEN she left.”	Standard (Ch. 6 link)
scarcely	when / before	“than” (non-standard)	“Scarcely had he sat WHEN she spoke.”	Standard syllabus
not so much	AS	“but” (confirmed error)	“Not so much tired AS hungry.”	NDA 2017-I ✓

“Both…And”: Not “Both…As Well As”

“Both…and” is the standard correlative pair. “As well as” is an additive conjunction that can stand alone (“He is intelligent as well as hardworking”), but it cannot serve as the second element in the “both…and” pair. Using “both…as well as” is redundant: “both” signals the two-part structure, “and” completes it.

NDA 2009-I: Spotting Errors:

“Both he as well as his friend/(a) worked in close harmony/(b) on the same project./(c) No error/(d)”

Error: Part (a): “as well as” should be “and”

Correct: “Both he and his friend worked in close harmony on the same project.”  [NDA 2009-I]

“No Sooner…Than”: Not “No Sooner…When”

“No sooner…than” expresses that one event immediately followed another. The second element is always “than”, not “when.” Students reach for “when” because it is the natural time conjunction for sequential events, but “no sooner” specifically takes “than.” The pair also triggers subject-auxiliary inversion when placed at the start of a clause (see cross-reference to Chapter 6: Adverbs).

NDA 2015-I: Spotting Errors:

“No sooner did I open the door/(a) when the rain, heavy and stormy, rushed in/(b) making us shiver from head to foot./(c) No error./(d)”

Error: Part (b): “when” should be “than”

Correct: “No sooner did I open the door than the rain rushed in.”  [NDA 2015-I]

Note: “No sooner” at the front of a clause triggers inversion: “No sooner did I open the door than…”: auxiliary before subject.

“Not So Much…As”: Not “Not So Much…But”

“Not so much X as Y” is a degree comparison: the subject is X to some extent but Y to a greater extent, or the focus shifts from X to Y. The second element is “as”, introducing the element that is more accurately the case. “But” introduces a replacement or contradiction; “as” introduces a comparison. Students use “but” by analogy with “not X but Y” (simple negation + assertion), but the “not so much” structure requires a comparative, not an adversative.

NDA 2017-I: Sentence Improvement:

“I disliked him not so much for his meanness but for his dishonesty.”

Underlined: “but for”  |  Options: (a) as for  (b) but because  (c) but due to  (d) No improvement

Answer: (a) as for  [NDA 2017-I]

“Not so much for his meanness AS for his dishonesty.” The comparison: his dishonesty was a greater reason for dislike than his meanness. “As” makes the comparison; “but” introduces a contradiction: wrong structure here.

6. Wrong Conjunction Choice: Sentence Completion Skills

NDA 2026-I introduced four Sentence Completion questions on conjunctions in a single paper: the largest single-paper conjunction cluster in the confirmed corpus. Each question presents a sentence fragment and asks the student to select the conjunction that correctly completes the intended logical relationship. This format inverts the Spotting Errors test: instead of identifying what is wrong, the student must supply what is correct.

The skill required is the same: knowing which conjunction expresses which logical relationship. The logical taxonomy in Section 3 is the direct preparation for these questions.

“Unless” vs “Until” / “If” / “Till”: Negative Conditional vs Temporal

“Unless” = if not (negative conditional). “Until” and “till” = up to a point in time (temporal endpoint). “If” = positive conditional. In a sentence about payment being withheld subject to a condition (the seller sending a bill), the relationship is conditional, not temporal.

NDA 2026-I: Sentence Completion:

“I will not pay for the goods _________.”

Options: (a) till he sends me the bill again  (b) until he sends me the bill again  (c) if he sends me the bill again  (d) unless he sends me the bill again

Answer: (d) unless he sends me the bill again  [NDA 2026-I]

The relationship: payment is withheld EXCEPT when the bill is sent. “Unless” = “except on the condition that”: correct for this negative conditional.

(a) “till” and (b) “until”: temporal endpoint; wrong logical relationship.

(c) “if he sends”: positive conditional; “I will not pay IF he sends”: the opposite of the intended meaning.

“Because”: Causal Conjunction

NDA 2026-I: Sentence Completion:

“I did not buy it _________.”

Options: (a) because I did not like the look of it  (b) as far as I did not like the look of it  (c) anyway I did not like the look of it  (d) if I did not like the look of it

Answer: (a) because I did not like the look of it  [NDA 2026-I]

The relationship: the reason for not buying. Causal relationship → “because”.

(b) “as far as”: limitative/comparative phrase, not a causal conjunction.

(c) “anyway”: adverb; cannot join clauses as a conjunction.

(d) “if”: conditional, not causal; changes the sentence meaning entirely.

“When”: Temporal Event Conjunction

NDA 2026-I: Sentence Completion:

“You must stay inside _________.”

Options: (a) where it starts raining  (b) when it starts raining  (c) because it starts raining  (d) till it starts raining

Answer: (b) when it starts raining  [NDA 2026-I]

The relationship: the temporal condition for staying inside. “When” = at the point in time that an event occurs: correct for this temporal trigger.

(a) “where”: locative; wrong logical category entirely.

(c) “because”: causal; the rain is a condition/trigger, not a reason for staying inside.

(d) “till it starts raining”: temporal endpoint; means “stay inside until rain begins”: the opposite of the intended meaning.

“Until” / “Till”: Temporal Endpoint Conjunction

NDA 2026-I: Sentence Completion:

“We must wait _________.”

Options: (a) until you see the light turn green  (b) till you see the green light  (c) because you can see the green light  (d) unless you see the red signal

Answer: (a) or (b): both until and till express the temporal endpoint.  [NDA 2026-I]

The relationship: waiting must continue up to a specific temporal point. “Until” and “till” are near-synonyms for the temporal endpoint, both correct in meaning. “Until” is somewhat more formal in written English.

(c) “because”: causal; waiting is not caused by seeing the light.

(d) “unless you see the red signal”: negative conditional and wrong meaning entirely.

“As Soon As”: Immediacy Conjunction

NDA 2017-I: Fill in the Blanks:

“I always felt hungry _________ I heard the dinner bell.”

Options: (a) as much as  (b) as well as  (c) as soon as  (d) as close as

Answer: (c) as soon as  [NDA 2017-I]

The relationship: hunger occurred immediately when the bell was heard. “As soon as” = immediately when, the moment that: correct for temporal immediacy.

(a) “as much as”: degree/quantity comparison; wrong category.

(b) “as well as”: additive conjunction; wrong category.

(d) “as close as”: comparative of proximity; wrong category. The distractors all begin with “as…as”: test of meaning, not form.

“Even” vs “Although”: Concessive Conjunction

NDA 2014-I: Sentence Improvement:

“Even he worked hard, he failed in the examination.”

Underlined: “Even”  |  Options: (a) Since  (b) Although  (c) For  (d) No improvement

Answer: (b) Although  [NDA 2014-I]

“Even” alone cannot introduce a concessive clause: it needs “though” or “if”. “Even though/if he worked hard, he failed.”

“Even he worked hard” uses “even” as an adverb (modifying “he”): wrong structure. “Although he worked hard, he failed.” : correct subordinating conjunction.

(a) “Since”: causal or temporal; contradicts the contrast the sentence expresses.

7. Redundant “That” Before Reported Questions

Two confirmed NDA questions test the same structural error: “that” is inserted between a reporting verb and a reported question introduced by a question word. This error arises from transferring the reported statement pattern (“He said that he was tired”) to reported questions, where the question word directly follows the reporting verb, and “that” is not used.

The Rule: Reported Questions Use the Question Word Directly

Reported statements:  “He said that he was tired.”  → “that” is correct before a noun clause.

Reported questions:  “He wondered what the next move would be.”  → Question word directly; no “that”.

Never:  “He wondered that what…” / “She asked him that why…” : “that” is redundant before a question word.

NDA 2013-II: Spotting Errors:

“He wondered that what/(a) would be the next move of his opponents/(b) who had vowed to see him dislodged from power./(c) No error/(d)”

Error: Part (a): “that what”

Correct: “He wondered what would be the next move…”  [NDA 2013-II]

NDA 2016-I: Spotting Errors:

“I asked him that/(a) why he was angry/(b) but he did not answer./(c) No error/(d)”

Error: Part (a): “that why”

Correct: “I asked him why he was angry…”  [NDA 2016-I]

Reporting Verb	Reported Statement: “that” correct	Reported Question: “that” wrong
wondered	“She wondered that her friend had left.”	“She wondered that why her friend left.” →  “She wondered why her friend left.”
Asked	“He asked that she return.” (request)	“He asked her that why she was angry.”  →  “He asked her why she was angry.”
enquired	“She enquired that the train would be late.” (informal)	“She enquired that what time it was.” →  “She enquired what time it was.”
Knew	“I did not know that he had left.”	“I did not know that where he had gone.” →  “I did not know where he had gone.”

8. “Whether” vs “If” in Formal English

Both “whether” and “if” can introduce indirect yes/no questions and noun clauses expressing uncertainty. In informal English, the two are often interchangeable. In formal written English: the standard tested by NDA: “whether” is preferred in specific contexts.

The Formal Distinction

Context	“Whether” (formal preference)	“If” (informal / conditional)	Rule
After verbs of doubt, question, uncertainty	“expressed doubt WHETHER the Minister was an atheist”	“expressed doubt IF…”: informal	After “doubt”: formal English prefers “whether”
After verbs of asking/wondering (indirect yes/no)	“She asked WHETHER he would come.”	“She asked IF he would come.”: informal	“Whether” is preferred in formal writing
Before an infinitive	“He could not decide WHETHER to go.”	“…decide IF to go.”: not standard	“Whether + to + infinitive”: only “whether” possible
At the start of a subject clause	“WHETHER he comes or not does not matter.”	“IF he comes…”: changes to conditional	Only “whether” can introduce a subject clause

NDA 2018-II: Spotting Errors:

“One of the members/(a) expressed doubt if/(b) the Minister was an atheist./(c) No error/(d)”

Error: Part (b): “if” should be “whether”

Correct: “expressed doubt whether the Minister was an atheist.”  [NDA 2018-II]

“Doubt” as a formal verb expresses genuine uncertainty about a yes/no question. Formal English selects “whether” after “doubt”: “if” is too informal for this context.

9. Supplementary Conjunction Concepts

“Would Like” + Object + Infinitive: No “That”

“Would like” is followed by an object and an infinitive, not by “that” + clause. “We would like all Indian children to go to school” is correct; “we would like that all Indian children to go to school” incorrectly inserts “that” before a subject + infinitive construction. The verb pattern is: would like + [person] + to + verb.

NDA 2015-I: Sentence Improvement:

“While we would like that all Indian children to go to school…”

Underlined: “that all Indian children”  |  Options: (a) that all the Indian children  (b) if all the children of India  (c) all Indian children  (d) No improvement

Answer: (c) all Indian children  [NDA 2015-I]

“Would like + that + subject + to infinitive” is non-standard. “Would like + [object] + to + verb” is correct: “would like all Indian children to go.”

“Since”: Dual Function: Temporal and Causal

“Since” has two distinct functions that can cause ambiguity.

“Since” as temporal conjunction:  “I have known her since 2010.”  → starting point of a period.

“Since” as causal conjunction:  “Since you are here, you might as well help.”  → because.

Ambiguity: “Since he left, things have changed”: this could mean “from the time he left” (temporal) or “because he left” (causal). Context resolves the ambiguity. In formal writing, “because” is preferred for the causal sense to avoid ambiguity.

“So That” vs “Such That” vs “So…As to”

“So that” introduces a purpose clause or result clause. “Such that” introduces a result clause following an intensified noun. “So…as to” introduces a result infinitive.

“Study so that you may succeed.”  → purpose clause

“He was such a bore that everyone left.”  → result after intensified noun phrase

“She spoke so clearly as to be heard by all.”  → result infinitive

Conjunctions vs Prepositions at the Boundary

Several words function as both conjunctions (before clauses) and prepositions (before noun phrases). The error arises when the prepositional form is used before a full clause or vice versa.

Word	As Preposition (+ noun phrase)	As Conjunction (+ full clause)
despite	“despite his poverty”	Cannot precede a full clause → use “even though”
in spite of	“in spite of the rain”	Cannot precede a full clause → use “although/though”
after	“after the meeting”	“After he left, she cried.” : functions as both
before	“before the exam”	“Before she arrived, he left.” : functions as both
since	“since Monday”	“Since he came, things changed.” : functions as both
until / till	“until midnight”	“Until he arrives, wait here.” : functions as both

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